Having visited game reserves in West, East and South Africa there is one cat that never ceases to impress the African leopard (Panthera  pardus pardus). 

DNA evidence shows that the lion, tiger, leopard, jaguar, snow leopard, and clouded leopard shared a common ancestor nearly 11 million years ago.

 

The leopard is an agile and stealthy predator, and its success in the wild owes in part to its opportunistic hunting behavior. The leopard is known for its ability in climbing, and it has been observed resting on tree branches during the day, dragging its kills up trees and hanging them there, and descending from trees headfirst. It is a powerful swimmer, although, not as strong as some other big cats, such as the tiger. The leopard is primarily a nocturnal creature

 

Although mid-sized animals are preferred, the leopard will eat anything from dung beetles to 900 kg male giant elands. Their diet consists mostly of monkeys, but rodents, reptiles, amphibians, birds and fish are also eaten.  In Africa, mid-sized antelopes provide a majority of the leopard's prey, especially impala and Thomson's gazelles.

 

The leopard stalks its prey silently and at the last minute pounces on its prey and strangles its throat with a quick bite. Leopards often hide their kills in dense vegetation or take them up trees, and are capable of carrying animals up to three times their own weight this way. The leopard is also the only big cat that can carry its prey up into a tree

 

A male may follow a female that catches his attention, although eventually a fight for reproductive rights may take place. Depending on the region, leopards may mate all year round (Asia and Africa). The estrous cycle lasts about 46 days and the female usually is in heat for 6–7 days. Gestation lasts for 90-105 days. Cubs are usually born in a litter of 2–4, but infant mortality is high and usually no more than 1–2 cubs survive beyond their infancy.

 

 

D3s Nikon 600mmVR f/8 1/400 +0.33ev ISO1600 Gitzo Tripod

The above is arguably one of my best photos, certainly the most awarded one; it was taken during a trip to Sarawak, Borneo, where I spend a week trying to get some special bird and mammal images.

 

I did not have too high expectations before the trip, as Sarawak in most places has been notoriously poor in looking after its habitat and natural treasures.  In many ways it was as I expected, only seeing hornbills flying over the Indonesian part of Borneo, however the Proboscis and Silver Leaf Monkeys at Bako National park never disappoint.

However, apart from all this, from a photographic point of view I came away with some exceptional macro images of amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, and plants.

But back to birding, I had been in two National Parks for almost a week with no exceptional birds photos to show in spite of many of early mornings and late nights. 

I was on my last day of the trip in the Bornean Highlands near the Indonesian border 1,000m above sea level.

It had been an unusually quiet morning in the Bornean highlands; just before I was packing-in before noon I suddenly heard the harsh rattling call "chit'it, chut'it" of the locally rare Spectacled Spiderhunter (Arachnothera flavigaster).  As I went closer, I saw in-between the pine and fern trees, a juvenile Spiderhunter flapping its wings trying to attract the attention of its parent flying above.  But the parents just ignored it, and it flew away, and I did not see it again.  But I had captured a series of photos of a magic moment, that actually only lasted 24 seconds - the highlight of my trip.

It was one of those, unfortunately, very rare moments where light, composition, habitat, and subject gives you a golden opportunity capture an exception image.

1st Prize Bird Photography, OASIS Photo Contest 2011, biggest contest in Italy
2nd Overall Winner, Ambiente Images Dispersas 2011 Competition, Portugal
Finalist, 2011 Wildlife Photographer of the Year Competition, sponsored by BBC Wildlife Magazine, British Natural History Museum, & Veolia.
Merit Award, 58th Singapore International Photography Award 2011

Below are some of the photos of the series: -

I'm getting hungry, I wonder where Mum and Dad is?

If I call them, they may hear me?

I will also flap my wings ...

hmmm ....

If they don't notice me now - they never will.

What do I do now? Do I have to find my own food?

The Spectacled Spiderhunter (Arachnothera flavigaster) is a species of bird in the Nectariniidae family. It is found in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montanes. This is both the largest spiderhunter and the largest representative of its family.

In Borneo it is quite a rare resident patchily distributed throughout the island. In Singapore it was a former resident, but now extinct.

The Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) frequently build their nests high on mountain cliffs, away from predators primarily Arctic Foxes and sometimes Polar Bears, but also away from food. Like all geese, the goslings are not fed by the adults. Instead of bringing food to the newly hatched goslings, the goslings are brought to the ground. Unable to fly, the three day old goslings jump off the cliff and fall; their small size, feathery down, and very light weight helps to protect some of them from serious injury when they hit the rocks below, but many get injured from the impact. Arctic foxes are attracted by the noise made by the parent geese during this time, and they capture many dead or injured goslings. The foxes also stalk the young as they are led by the parents to wetland feeding areas.

Once hatched, the family moves to areas of 'abundant' vegetation, grazing on dwarf willow on the coastal meadows, often in larges flocks.  In July/August the adult geese moult for around 21 days, so they always stay close to water to which they run in their flightless condition - if disturbed.

When in the high arctic the Barnacle goose eats for 1.5 hours by which time it stomach is full, then it sleeps for half an hour, during which time its droppings can be counted every 5 minutes, and then it starts all over again 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, taking full advantage of the 24 hours light in the high arctic for the 4 summer months.  They only utilize around 30% of the nutritional contents of their food intake, so Barnacle goose droppings are often eaten by the Svalbard Reindeer.

There are 3 different populations of Barnacle geese, one of which is the Svalbard birds, which winter in the Solway Firth of Scotland, this population number around 24,000.

Normally Black Caimans are quite shy, as there is still a heavy hunting pressure.

Saw Black Caiman meat in the local wet market, however this 3 meter long fellow obviously did not know, quite relaxed and even smiled once in a while ........ waited for half an hour or so see if a butterfly would land on the nose ... but had to do with a small blue dragonfly.  

A young female enjoying a bath in the rain at Kinabatangan River

Due to their small size, gentle nature and relatively large ears, they have been dubbed “pygmy” elephants. Less than 1,500 (Elephas maximus borneensis) are found, mostly in the Malaysian state of Sabah. This makes Sabah home to the world's smallest known and most rare sub-species of elephants in the world.

I have now visited Kinabatangan River almost a dozen times over the past 10 years, and have been fortunate to observe the Pygmy Elephants at close range 4 times.  Each time you feel humbled by these wonderful creatures facing a difficult future.

Water is good! 

The single most important cause of the decline of the Asian elephant has been the loss of its habitat. Large blocks of forests required by elephants in Sabah have been fragmented by conversion of extensive natural forests, formerly the Borneo Pygmy’s main habitat, to commercial palm oil plantations. 

A male individual foraging in a palm oil plantation at night.  Electrical wire fencing and noise-making 'cannons' are not always effective.

A week old pygmy elephant is being guided  carefully through the water.

One calf is born at a time and female Asian elephants have about 7 calves in a lifetime. They give birth about every 4 - 6 years, although this period may be extended when conditions are unfavourable for survival, such as during drought. The gestation period is between 19-22  Calves suckle for 3 - 4 years. 

When crossing waterway the pygmy elephants are almost completely submerged!

This was part of a herd of 20+ Borneo Pygmy Elephants, a magic sight! Below you can see 2 young male elephants bonding while the female matriarch is on the outlook! 

The Snakebird also called Oriental Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) is a water bird of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is a cormorant-like species that has a very long neck. It is a fish-eater, and usually swims only with the neck and head above water, which always makes it a challenge to capture in focus. It is now nearly extinct in Peninsula Malaysia and Thailand, but still common in Kinabatangan, Sabah.

It is often best to get it early in the morning when it is actively feeding.  In the above photo it is struggling to secure its breakfast - but managed in the end!

I particularly like this early morning series of photos taken at the Kinabatangan River, when the first sun rays penetrated the canopy at the same time when the Oriental Darter took off.  It is one of those situations where you either make it or not - as you will probably never be able to do a re-shot! All taken with Nikon D3s and Nikon 600mm VR.

Reproduction in these groups is characterized as promiscuous. In other words, one male will generally mate with all of the females and vice-versa. Shortly after females reach maturity, they leave their natal groups (where they were born) as a means of avoiding inbreeding. Males will stay in their natal groups for life. 

They are listed as vulnerable by IUCN.

Below article appeared in NATURE WATCH Volume 17 No. 3, Jul-Sep 2009

ECOTOURISM

Galapagos

Can Darwin's Lab Survive Success?

Text and photos by Bjorn Olesen

Bjorn Olesen visits the Galapagos Islands, the birthplace of eco-tourism, and he reflects on some of the lessons learnt.

Originally known as the Enchanted Isles, Galapagos is located some 1,000 km off Ecuador's coast and consist of 13 main islands plus 115 small islets, all of volcanic origin.  The total land area is 7,900 square km, about 10 times the size of Singapore.

This Archipelago is universally viewed as one of the most unusual and precious ecosystems on earth.  It was first recognized in 1835, when Charles Darwin Stopped there on the HMS Beagle as a part of a 5-year expedition.  Half the birds, more than half of the insects, a third of the plants and all the reptiles are endemic to Galapagos, being found nowhere else on the planet.

The endemic Galapagos Sea Lion (Zalophus wollebaeki).

Prior to 1800, pirates had established small outposts on the islands.  The pirates were later replaced by whalers.   Galapagos was claimed by Ecuador in 1832, after which small permanent settlements were established.  At the time of Darwin's visit, there were some 200-300 people living there.

Eco-tourism started here

Coming forward in time, the Galapagos is often cited as the place where eco-tourism started.  Since the late 1980s the islands have had to cope with a variety of complex problems that have all come in the wake of the eco-tourism boom: New immigrants, introduced species, industrial over-fishing, and conflicts between development interests and park management.

Despite the passage in 1998 of The Special Law for the Galapagos by the Ecuadorian Government, the number of people living in the Galapagos has increased from 20,000 in 1998 to 40,000 in 2006 (including illegal immigrants).  Tourist arrivals have more than doubled over the last ten years as well, with serious implications.

The Great Frigatebird (Fregata minor).

Under The Special Law, tour companies are required to hire locally, unless they can prove that the skills they require are not available on the islands.  When stopping at islands with human settlements, many tour companies now arrange for passengers to visit restaurants, private farms, and local schools.  By 2006, there were 114 restaurants/bars in the Galapagos, up from just 20 in 1982.  Larger vessel are required to visit two parts of the islands during an eight-day tour, and this has stimulated new ecotourism income for the communities.

 Pinnacle Rock, Bartolome Island

New immigrants reinforce a frontier mentality bringing a culture based on resource extraction, low awareness about the galapagos ecosystem, and strong external alliances.  Commercial fishing, while legally restricted to fewer than 1,000 local fishermen, continues to grown, with serious environmental consequences.  One of the most worrisome environmental threats to the Galapagos Island has been the introduction of non-native species - accelerating in the wake of the eco-tourism and immigration booms.

Goats, for example, were introduced way back in the 1850's and immediately began to take food away fron indigenous tortoises and iguanas.  On the island of Isabella, there are more than 200,000 goats, which are extremely adaptable and hard to exterminate.  There are many other introduced pests: cats kill young iguanas and chicks of birds; dogs eat turtle eggs and hunt adult iguanas.  Pigs destroy bird nests; donkeys devour vegetation; rats eat eggs of the giant tortoises.  Invasive species also include insects and plants, which are equally threatening.

  The Marine Iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus)

 But eliminating one species at a time is not practical.  The vegetation that goats eat provides cover for feral pigs.  Cats eat rats.  Dogs kill cats.  There needs to be an integrated, well-designed programme.  Eradicating introduced species and keeping new ones from arriving is a never-ending and enormously costly struggle.

By 2007, scientists have identified introductions of 36 species of vertebrates (including donkeys, cattle, goats, dogs), 540 species of invertebrates (various ants, wasps, flies), and 740 plant species, and the numbers continues to rise.

The endemic Galapagos Giant Tortoise (Geochelone nigra).

 In 2001 UNISCO granted World Heritage status to this gigantic marine reserve which covers 138,000 square km.  But despite these positive steps at setting a legal framework for protection, the galapagos remain at risk.  In June 2007, UNESCO added the Galapagos to the list of "World Heritage in Danger" sites, noting specifically the negative effects brought by the sizeable growth of tourism, which had grown from 41,000 visitors in 1990 to around 145,000 in 2006.

The Galapagos Land Iguana (Conolophus subcristatus).

Eco-tourism Scorecard 

Some have heralded the Galapagos Islands, with their geographic remoteness, well-run national park and biological research station, low-impact floating hotels, and environmentally aware tourists, as a model of sustainable and sound eco-tourism as definad by Honey (1999):

1. Involves Travel to Natural Destinations

Nature is the allure of the Galapagos.  This mid-ocean moonscape of stark lava rock and scrub brush remains one of the world's most precious ecosystems.  It offers eco-travellers both unique clues to understanding evolution and chances for close encounters with exotic creatures.

2. Minimizes Impact

During the past decades, tour operators, naturalist guides, national park officials, and research station scientists in the Galapagos have worked together to create a model for low-impact, high-quality eco-tourism (see later paragraph).  However, the 2007 decision to include the Galapagos on the list of endangered World Heritage sites indicates strongly that tourism numbers have become too high for the islands' capacity.

More serious are three other problems that only partially are connected with the eco-tourism boom: introduced species, immigration, and commercial fishing.  In particular the enforcement of the immigration section of The Special Law has been very patchy.  

So on this dimension the record has been very mixed.

3.  Builds Environmental Awareness

Eco-tourism has helped to expand the world's understanding of the islands' uniqueness and fragility.  The many visitors have helped to spread the word, and so has the countless nature documentation and infotainment programmes produced there and shown in Ecuador and all over the world.  Although, as visitor numbers have grown exponentially, there has been a gradual watering down of environmental emphasis.  Overall, the record in this respect has been good.

 4.  Provides Direct Financial Benefits for Conservation

The Galapagos Islands are Ecuador's biggest tourism destination, bringing in one-third of the government's revenue from tourism.  The increased entrance fees for foreigners, and the increase in the percentage of gate fees kept by the national parks service have greatly increased the amount of funds for environmental protection.  This is a solid victory for conservation, but it comes at a time when the islands and marine reserve are facing greater environmental assaults than ever before.

5.  Provides financial Benefits and Empowerment for Local People

Eco-tourism has done both.  Since the late 1980's, the standard of living and job opportunities on the islands have grown, as has the political militancy of the local population.  the Special Law dictates a fairly even distribution of park entrance fee revenues.  Moreover, it outlines measures to strengthen economic capacity and opportunities, educational level, technical skills, and social services of the resident community, while attempting to curb its unsustainable level of growth.  This is a clear victory for the islanders.  However, trends in recent years show a stagnation in benefits for local people, as the "quality" and average spending of each foreign tourist declines.

6. Respects Local Culture

This is not a significant issue in the Galapagos, since most of the local community is recently imported.

7.  Supports Human Rights and Democratic Movements

Over the last decade or more, a representative movement has developed that pushed for participatory democracy on the islands and for the passage of the Special Law by the national government in Quito, the capital.  This development is in line with the principles and goals of eco-tourism, so a positive development.

 Blue-footed Booby (Sula nebouxii)

In the Galapagos, more than almost anywhere else in the world, the only viable commercial activity is high-quality, limited, and carefully monitored eco-tourism.  This, combined with the key components of the 1998 Special Law, which aims to carefully regulate immigration and fishing, holds out a possibility of protecting the fragile environment and striking equilibrium with the local population.  If enforcement of the local regulations could be improved, and a meaningful increase in the entrance fees for foreigners implemented, and if numbers were well controlled and/or reduced, the outlook for the archipelago would look bright.

I  agree with Tom Fritts, a wildlife biologist, who states in Honey (1999): "the bottom line is that ... the Galapagos still have about 95% of their native species of flora and fauna ... They are disturbed but not destroyed."

So for those who have the opportunity, I strongly recommend a visit to the Enchanted Isles, where you can still find those untouched places of nature that is pure magic.

Bjorn Lynggaard Olesen is a member of NSS and life member Malaysia Nature Society.  He is a freelance wildlife photographer, long-term resident in South-East Asia, and permanent resident in Singapore.  He supplies his images to publications and websites in the region.

Waved Albatross (Phoebastria irrorata).

Commendable Ecuadorian Ecotourism Initiatives

A)  The Ecuadorian Ecotourism Association (ASEC) founded in 1991 was one of the first national eco-tourism organizations in the world.  In early 2008 ASEC had 67 members (7 in Galapagos) representing all the social sectors of eco-tourism in Ecuador: Indigenous and local communities, private tour operators, NGOs, universities, local governments, the Ministry of Tourism, clean energy companies, and private individuals.  Together these members manage approximately 76% of incoming tourism in Ecuador.

B) The larger tour operators founded a dynamic, no-profit organization in 1995, International Galapagos Tour Operators Association (IGTOA) to lobby the Ecuadorian Congress for passage of the Special Law.  Their stated mission is to: "preserve the Galapagos islands as a unique and priceless world heritage that will provide enjoyment, education, adventure, and inspiration to present and future generations of travelers." IGTOA has become the collective voice to petition the government of Ecuador to proper funding, management and legal enforcement.

C) The Galapagos Chamber of Tourism (CAPTURGAL) founded in 1996, spearheaded in 2005 a green certification programme for local products in tourism, fishing and agriculture sectors.

D) In 2005, Smart Voyager, a new environmental certification programme for boats in the Galapagos was launched in a collaboration between Conservacion y Desarrollo, an NGO citizen's group founded in 1992 and based in Quito, and the Rainforest Alliance and American environmental NGOI.  By 2007, Smart Voyager had certified 8 boats and also moved into certification of hotels throughout Ecuador.

E) For renewal of operating licences, local authorities require all boat operators to subscribe to oil and solid waste recycling programmes, and to obtain a fumigation certificate to prevent introduction of alien species.  Boats must also be fitted with holding tanks for wastewater, which is then collected in ports by local councils.   In 1999, a used-oil recycling programme was started which has recycled 120,000 gallons of oil up to 2005 - equivalent to 75% of the total oil used in the islands.

REFERENCES

Andrew, D. (2006) Watching Wildlife: Galapagos Islands Guide.  Lonely Planet.

Boyce, B. (2004) A Traveller's Guide to the Galapagos Islands.

Honeyh, M. (1999) Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Stronza, A. & Durham, W.H. (eds) (2008) Ecotourism and Conservation in the Americas.  Oxford University Press.

A Galagagos Reading List: http://people.rit.edu/rhrsbi/GalapagosPages/Bibliography.html

Challenges Facing Galapagos: http://wwigtoa.org/info_for_travelers/issues_facing_galapagos.php

Galapagos Conservancy: http://www.galapagos.org/2008/index.php?id=49

Galapagos News: http//www.igtoa.org/news/